hidden pixel

Survival Skills Information

Survival skills are techniques a person may use in a dangerous situation (e.g. natural disasters) to save themselves or others. These techniques are meant to provide basic necessities for human life: water, food, shelter, habitat, the ability to think straight, to signal for help, to navigate safely, to avoid unpleasant interactions with animals and plants, and cure any present injuries. Survival skills are often basic ideas and abilities that ancient humans have used for thousands of years. Hiking, backpacking, horseback riding, fishing, hunting and many other outdoor activities all require basic wilderness survival skills to handle an emergency situation. Bushcraft and primitive living are most often self implemented, but require many of the same skills.

Contents

Types

Astronaut Susan Helms, a member of the second crew that will live aboard the International Space Station, gathers firewood during Soyuz winter survival training in March 1998 near Star City, Russia.

Many skills are environment specific and require training in a particular environment. Wilderness survival is commonly broken down into three areas: Modern Wilderness Survival, bushcraft, and primitive living. The latter two are often self imposed, thus not always "survival" in the strict sense of the word, but many of the same techniques are employed.

Modern Wilderness Survival teaches the skills needed to survive Short-Term (1 to 4 Days).

Bushcraft is a combination of Modern Wilderness Survival and Primitive Living, lasting 4-10 days.

Primitive Living teaches the skills needed to survive over the Long-Term (40 days plus). Many primitive technology skills require much more practice and may be more environmentally specific.[1]

Several organizations offer wilderness survival training. Course ranges from one day to field courses lasting several months. Different training is necessary to survive in different climates. Although one technique may work in a dry sub-Saharan area, the same methods may actually be a detriment to health in an arctic climate.

First aid

Main article: Wilderness medical emergency

First aid (wilderness first aid in particular) can help a person survive and function with injuries and illnesses that would otherwise kill or incapacitate him/her. Common and dangerous injuries include:

The survivor may need to apply the contents of a first aid kit or, if possessing the required knowledge, naturally occurring medicinal plants, immobilize injured limbs, or even transport incapacitated comrades.

File:Example.jpg''Italic text'Bold textFirst aid is the provision of initial care for an illness or injury. It is usually performed by non-expert, but trained personnel to a sick or injured person until definitive medical treatment can be accessed. Certain self-limiting illnesses or minor injuries may not require further medical care past the first aid intervention. It generally consists of a series of simple and in some cases, potentially life-saving techniques that an individual can be trained to perform with minimal equipment. While first aid can also be performed on all animals, the term generally refers to care of human patients. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Aims 3 Key skills 3.1 Preserving life 3.2 Promoting recovery 4 Training 4.1 Australia 4.2 Canada 4.3 France 4.4 Ireland 4.5 Singapore 4.6 The Netherlands 4.7 United Kingdom 4.8 United States 5 Specific disciplines 6 Symbols 7 Conditions that often require first aid 8 References 9 External links [edit]History

The instances of recorded first aid were provided by religious knights, such as the Knights Hospitaller, formed in the 11th century, providing care to pilgrims and knights, and training other knights in how to treat common battlefield injuries.[1] The practice of first aid fell largely in to disuse during the High Middle Ages, and organized societies were not seen again until in 1859 Jean-Henri Dunant organized local villagers to help victims of the Battle of Solferino, including the provision of first aid. Four years later, four nations met in Geneva and formed the organization which has grown into the Red Cross, with a key stated aim of "aid to sick and wounded soldiers in the field".[1] This was followed by the formation of St. John Ambulance in 1877, based on the principles of the Knights Hospitaller, to teach first aid, and numerous other organization joined them with the term first aid first coined in 1878 as civilian ambulance services spread as a combination of "first treatment" and "national aid"[1] in large railway centres and mining districts as well as with police forces. First aid training began to spread through the empire through organisations such as St. John, often starting, as in the UK, with high risk activities such as ports and railways.[2] Many developments in first aid and many other medical techniques have been driven by wars, such as in the case of the American Civil War, which prompted Clara Barton to organize the American Red Cross.[3] Today, there are several groups that promote first aid, such as the military and the Scouting movement. New techniques and equipment have helped make today’s first aid simple and effective. [edit]Aims

The key aims of first aid can be summarized in three key points:[4] Preserve life: the overriding aim of all medical care, including first aid, is to save lives Prevent further harm: also sometimes called prevent the condition from worsening, or danger of further injury, this covers both external factors, such as moving a patient away from any cause of harm, and applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, such as applying pressure to stop a bleed becoming dangerous. Promote recovery: first aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from the illness or injury, and in some cases might involve completing a treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster to a small wound First aid training also involves the prevention of initial injury and responder safety, and the treatment phases. [edit]Key skills

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2010)

In case of tongue fallen backwards, blocking the airway, it is necessary to hyperextend the head and pull up the chin, so that the tongue lifts and clears the airway. Certain skills are considered essential to the provision of first aid and are taught ubiquitously. Particularly the "ABC"s of first aid, which focus on critical life-saving intervention, must be rendered before treatment of less serious injuries. ABC stands for Airway, Breathing, and Circulation. The same mnemonic is used by all emergency health professionals. Attention must first be brought to the airway to ensure it is clear. Obstruction (choking) is a life-threatening emergency. Following evaluation of the airway, a first aid attendant would determine adequacy of breathing and provide rescue breathing if necessary. Assessment of circulation is now not usually carried out for patients who are not breathing, with first aiders now trained to go straight to chest compressions (and thus providing artificial circulation) but pulse checks may be done on less serious patients. Some organizations add a fourth step of "D" for Deadly bleeding or Defibrillation, while others consider this as part of the Circulation step. Variations on techniques to evaluate and maintain the ABCs depend on the skill level of the first aider. Once the ABCs are secured, first aiders can begin additional treatments, as required. Some organizations teach the same order of priority using the "3Bs": Breathing, Bleeding, and Bones (or "4Bs": Breathing, Bleeding, Brain, and Bones). While the ABCs and 3Bs are taught to be performed sequentially, certain conditions may require the consideration of two steps simultaneously. This includes the provision of both artificial respiration and chest compressions to someone who is not breathing and has no pulse, and the consideration of cervical spine injuries when ensuring an open airway. [edit]Preserving life In order to stay alive, all persons need to have an open airway—a clear passage where air can move in through the mouth or nose through the pharynx and down in to the lungs, without obstruction. Conscious people will maintain their own airway automatically, but those who are unconscious (with a GCS of less than 8) may be unable to maintain a patent airway, as the part of the brain which automatically controls breathing in normal situations may not be functioning. If the patient was breathing, a first aider would normally then place them in the recovery position, with the patient leant over on their side, which also has the effect of clearing the tongue from the pharynx. It also avoids a common cause of death in unconscious patients, which is choking on regurgitated stomach contents. The airway can also become blocked through a foreign object becoming lodged in the pharynx or larynx, commonly called choking. The first aider will be taught to deal with this through a combination of ‘back slaps’ and ‘abdominal thrusts’. Once the airway has been opened, the first aider would assess to see if the patient is breathing. If there is no breathing, or the patient is not breathing normally, such as agonal breathing, the first aider would undertake what is probably the most recognized first aid procedure—cardiopulmonary resuscitation or CPR, which involves breathing for the patient, and manually massaging the heart to promote blood flow around the body. [edit]Promoting recovery The first aider is also likely to be trained in dealing with injuries such as cuts, grazes or bone fracture. They may be able to deal with the situation in its entirety (a small adhesive bandage on a paper cut), or may be required to maintain the condition of something like a broken bone, until the next stage of definitive care (usually an ambulance) arrives. [edit]Training

First aid scenario training in progress Basic principles, such as knowing to use an adhesive bandage or applying direct pressure on a bleed, are often acquired passively through life experiences. However, to provide effective, life-saving first aid interventions requires instruction and practical training. This is especially true where it relates to potentially fatal illnesses and injuries, such as those that require cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR); these procedures may be invasive, and carry a risk of further injury to the patient and the provider. As with any training, it is more useful if it occurs before an actual emergency, and in many countries, emergency ambulance dispatchers may give basic first aid instructions over the phone while the ambulance is on the way. Training is generally provided by attending a course, typically leading to certification. Due to regular changes in procedures and protocols, based on updated clinical knowledge, and to maintain skill, attendance at regular refresher courses or re-certification is often necessary. First aid training is often available through community organizations such as the Red Cross and St. John Ambulance, or through commercial providers, who will train people for a fee. This commercial training is most common for training of employees to perform first aid in their workplace. Many community organizations also provide a commercial service, which complements their community programmes. [edit]Australia In Australia, Nationally recognized First Aid certificates may only be issued by Registered training organisations who are accredited on the National Training Information System (NTIS). Courses are based on the delivery and assessment of Unit's of Competency from various Training Packages.[5] Most First Aid certificates are issued at one of three levels:: Provide Basic Emergency Life Support. Formerly Level 1 (or “Basic First Aid”, or “Basic Life Support”) this is a 1-day course covering primarily life-threatening emergencies. It involves the training and assessment of HLTFA201A from the HLT07 Health Training Package[6] Apply First Aid. Formerly Level 2 (“Senior First Aid”) is either a 2 day face to face course or 1 day face to face combined with 4 - 8 theory work at home or online. It involves the delivery and assessment of HLTFA301B Apply First Aid. It covers all the aspects of training in "Provide Basic Emergency Life Support, as well as specialized training for treatment of burns, bites, stings, electric shock and poisons and the use of an AED. Apply First Aid must be re-accredited every three years to remain current for use in the workplace[7] Reaccreditation of the CPR component ( HLTFACPR201[6] is generally required annually, although individual states set the specific requirements. Apply Advanced First Aid. Formerly Level 3 (“Occupational First Aid”) is a three or four day course covering advanced first aid, use of oxygen and automated external defibrillators and documentation. It is suitable for workplace First Aiders and those who manage First Aid facilities. It is based on the training and assessment of a group of units of competency - HLTFA301B Apply first aid, HLTFA402B Apply advanced first aid and HLTFA403A Manage first aid in the workplace - that are generally delivered together. Other courses outside these levels are commonly taught, including CPR-only courses, Advanced Resuscitation, Remote Area or Wilderness First Aid, Administering Medications (such as salbutamol or the Epi-Pen) and specialized courses for parents, school teachers, community first responders or hazardous workplace first aiders. CPR Re-accreditation courses are sometimes required yearly, regardless of the length of the overall certification. [edit]Canada In Canada, first aid certificates are awarded by one of several national organizations including the Red Cross, the Lifesaving Society and St. John Ambulance. Or they can also be issued by sub-national organizations such as Certified Emergency Response Training. The terms "Emergency First Aid" and "Standard First Aid" are generic and based on Health Canada (a federal department of the Government of Canada) review and approval of a training organization's curriculum / syllabus (training content), standards and other factors. Workplace safety regulations and standards for first aid vary by province depending on occupation. However, as some occupations are governed by federal, not provincial, workplace safety regulations, such as the transportation industry (marine, aviation, rail), trainees need to confirm with their employer as to exactly what specific training and certification standards comply with the applicable regulatory agencies, federal or provincial. Emergency First Aid: is an 8-hour course covering primarily life-threatening emergencies: CPR, bleeding, choking and other life-threatening medical emergencies. Standard First Aid: is a 16-hour course that covers the same material as Emergency First Aid and will include training for some, but not all, of the following: breaks; burns; poisons, bites and stings; eye injuries; head and neck injuries; chest injuries; wound care; emergency child birth; and multiple casualty management. Medical First Responder (BTLS—known by different names among different Canadian organizations): is a 40 hour course. It requires Standard First Aid certification as a prerequisite. Candidates are trained in the use of oxygen, automated external defibrillators, airway management, and the use of additional emergency equipment. CPR certification in Canada is broken into several levels. Depending on the level, the lay person will learn the basic one-person CPR and choking procedures for adults, and perhaps children, and infants. Higher-level designations also require two-person CPR to be learned. Depending on provincial laws, trainees may also learn the basics of automated external defibrillation (AED).[8] Level A is the lowest level of CPR training. Trainees learn how to perform the standard one-rescuer CPR and choking procedures on adults. Level B requires the same procedures as Level A, but trainees learn to perform these maneuvers on children and infants in addition to adults. Level C requires the same maneuvers as Level B, and trainees are also taught how to perform two-person CPR. Level HCP (Health Care Professional) was introduced in Canada in response to new guidelines set by the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation.[9] In addition to the techniques taught in Level C, artificial resuscitation, AED use (to certification standards), and bag-valve-mask use is taught. Anyone with CPR-HCP certification is considered AED certified. [edit]France In France, first aid certificates are delivered by organisations that are approved by the Minister of the Interior, following the official national reference document (Référentiel national, RN). There are about 20 approved associations (Croix-rouge française, Fédération Nationale de Protection Civile, Fédération des secouristes français Croix-Blanche, Œuvres hospitalières françaises de l'ordre de Malte, Union nationale de protection civile, Association nationale des premiers secours, …); many administrations — army, fire services, national education, … — are also approved. at school: basics must be taught at the primary school grande section de maternelle (5 years old): to detect a danger, to look for an adult, cours élémentaire 1 (CE1, 7 years old): to protect oneself, to call for help, cours moyen 2 (CM2, 10 years old): to make a complete phone call, to place a casualty in an adapted position (sitting, lying, recovery position); at the Journée défense et citoyenneté (Information to the army careers): IAPS, Initiation à l'alerte et aux premiers secours (initiation to call for help and first aid) Securing. Calling for help. The casualty is not alert (recovery position). The casualty is not breathing (CPR, AED). PSC1: Prévention et secours civiques de niveau 1 (Prevention and civic aid, level 1): 10 hours, Securing (including emergency casualty movement). Calling for help. The casualty is choking. The casualty bleeds deadly. The casualty is not alert (recovery position). The casualty is not breathing (CPR, AED, including children and babies). The casualty complains about illness (including strokes and heart infarction). The casualty complains after a trauma (burns, wounds, broken bones, joint sprains and dislocations). SST: Sauvetage-secourisme du travail (first aid at work): similar to PSC1, with a study of the specific risks of the activity of the worker; PSE: premiers secours en équipe (team first aid, certified first responders): PSE1 (level 1): 35 hrs, acting as a member of a first aid organisation general principles (managing stress, relationships to the casualty and the bystanders, hygiene, being part of a team, security, basic anatomy), advanced assessment (check pupils, check pulse, pain assessment), cervical collar, suction, oxygen first aid, basic bandages and tourniquets, methods with two team members (emergency movements, recovery position, removal of a helmet, jaw thrust, CPR), specific cases (amputations, casualty in a car, drowning), simple patient transport (walking, sitting in a chair); PSE2 (level 2): 35 hrs, acting as a member of a rescue team managing the medical wastes, cleaning an ambulance and the first aid material, reacting to an accidental contact with blood, complete assessment (including blood pressure cuff, pulse oximeter, ear thermometer), two-way radio, specific cases (bites, stings, intoxication, blast, rhabdomyolysis, heat stroke, hypothermia, hanging and strangulation, convulsions, diabetes, anaphylaxis, pregnancy, behaviour disorders), advanced bandages, preservation of an amputated limb, member realignment and splints (including cervical collar, KED, long spine board with side head supports, vacuum mattress, Donway traction splints), casualty lifting (including standing casualty with a spine trauma, casualty lying face-down or in recovery popsition, different lifting device, stretchers and chairs), casualty transport (including obstacles passing, stairs), situations with multiple casualties (including disasters, plan rouge, plan Orsec, chemical hazard). [edit]Ireland In Ireland, the workplace qualification is the Occupational First Aid Certificate. The Health and Safety Authority issue the standards for first aid at work and hold a register of qualified instructors, examiners and organisations that can provide the course. A FETAC Level 5 certificate is awarded after passing a three day course and is valid for two years from date of issue. Occupational First Aiders are more qualified than Cardiac First Responders (Cardiac First Response and training on the AED is now part of the OFA course) but less qualified than Emergency First Responders but strangely Occupational First Aid is the only one of the three not certified by PHECC. Organisations offering the certificate include, Ireland's largest first aid organisation, the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps, the St John Ambulance Brigade, and the Irish Red Cross. The Irish Red Cross also provides a Practical First Aid Course aimed at the general public dealing primarily with family members getting injured. Many other (purely commercially run) organisations offer training. [edit]Singapore In Singapore, the workplace qualification is the Occupational First Aid Certificate. The Ministry of Manpower (Singapore) issue the standards for first aid at work and qualifies first aid instructors, occupational nurses and doctors and registered safety officers as examiners and organisations that can provide the course. Instructors are required to undergo an ACTA certification, a nationally recognised training standard endorsed by the Workforce Development Agency. Workplaces with more than 25 employees are required to have certified Occupational First Aiders. The Occupational First Aid Course recently incorporated a CPR and AED segment which is accredited by the National Resuscitation Council of Singapore and is valid for 2 years. Occupational First Aiders learn more workplace related topics than Cardiac First Responders and is the industry standard in Singapore. However, they may be less qualified than EMTs. [edit]The Netherlands In the Netherlands basic level lay firstaid training is mostly provided by specialised (commercial) first aid training companies or volunteer instructors and first aiders are mostly certified by the "Dutch Red Cross" and the foundation "Het Oranje Kruis". The foundation "LPEV" certifies mainly advanced and first responder level' firstaid training. Medical firstaid must always be provided by certified ambulance crews, physicians and hospital staff. [edit]United Kingdom In the U.K., there are two main types of first aid courses offered. An “Emergency First Aid at Work” course typically lasts one day, and covers the basics, focusing on critical interventions for conditions such as cardiac arrest and severe bleeding, and is usually not formally assessed. A “First Aid at Work” course is usually a three-day course (two days for a re-qualification) that covers the full spectrum of first aid, and is formally assessed by recognized Health and Safety Executive assessors. Certificates for the “First Aid at Work” course are issued by the training organization and are valid for a period of three years from the date the delegate passes the course. Other courses offered by training organizations such as St. John Ambulance, St Andrew’s First Aid or the British Red Cross include Baby and Child Courses, manual handling, people moving, and courses geared towards more advanced life support, such as defibrillation and administration of medical gases such as oxygen and entonox. The British Forces use First Aid ranging from levels 1–3, to assist the medical staff on their Ship, Squadron, Section, Base or any other purpose required. They are trained in both Military and Civilian First Aid and often utilise their knowledge in aid stricken regions around the world. First Aid is vital on board HM Ships because of the number of people in a small area and the space given to perform their task, it is also vital for the Army and Royal Marines to know basic first aid to help the survival rate of the soldiers when in combat. [edit]United States In the United States, there is no universal schedule of First Aid levels that are applicable to all agencies that provide first aid training. Training is provided typically through the American Red Cross, but may also be completed by local fire departments and the American Heart Association (AHA) in terms of CPR. The American Red Cross, however, offers the following courses:[10] CPR CPR-Adult (CPR-A) CPR-Child and Infant (CPR-CI) CPR-Adult and Child (CPR-AC) CPR-Adult, Child, and Infant (CPR-ACI) CPR/Automated External Defibrillator (AED) CPR/AED-Adult (CPR/AED-A) CPR/AED-Adult and Child (CPR/AED-AC) CPR/AED for the Professional Rescuer First Aid First Aid Basics Standard First Aid First Aid - Responding to Emergencies Wilderness and Remote First Aid Emergency Medical Response Specialty Administering Emergency Oxygen Bloodborne Pathogens Training Lifeguarding (Lifeguard training) Epinephrine Auto-Injector Use First Responder in the Workplace training (CPR/AED/First Aid) Dog, Cat, and Dog/Cat First Aid Babysitter's Training Instructor Certification

Red Cross training programs may vary by Chapter and season. Lay First Aid Providers in the United States are subject to Good Samaritan law protections as long as their treatment does not extend beyond training or certification. First Aid training in the United States is limited to basic life support functions needed to sustain life, and training instills the importance of activating the Emergency Medical System before beginning assistance (through the Three C's: Check, Call, Care). Training classes range from a few hours for a specific course, or several days for combination, specialty, and instructor courses. Red Cross volunteers are required to be Standard First Aid plus CPR/ACI certified (AED is encouraged but not required as of 2009), as well as passing the FEMA NIMS Introductory certification. [edit]Specific disciplines

There are several types of first aid (and first aider) which require specific additional training. These are usually undertaken to fulfill the demands of the work or activity undertaken. Aquatic/Marine first aid—Usually practiced by professionals such as lifeguards, professional mariners or in diver rescue, and covers the specific problems which may be faced after water-based rescue and/or delayed MedEvac. Battlefield first aid—This takes in to account the specific needs of treating wounded combatants and non-combatants during armed conflict. Hyperbaric first aid—Which may be practiced by SCUBA diving professionals, who need to treat conditions such as the bends. Oxygen first aid—Providing oxygen to casualties who suffer from conditions resulting in hypoxia. Wilderness first aid is the provision of first aid under conditions where the arrival of emergency responders or the evacuation of an injured person may be delayed due to constraints of terrain, weather, and available persons or equipment. It may be necessary to care for an injured person for several hours or days. Hydrofluoric Acid first aid—taught to first aiders in the chemical industry where hydrofluoric acid may be used. Instructs the first aider how to initially treat (with calcium gluconate) any skin that has been splashed with the acid. [edit]Symbols

For more details on this topic, see Emblems of the Red Cross#Use of the emblems. Although commonly associated with first aid, the symbol of a red cross is an official protective symbol of the Red Cross. According to the Geneva Conventions and other international laws, the use of this and similar symbols is reserved for official agencies of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent, and as a protective emblem for medical personnel and facilities in combat situations. Use by any other person or organization is illegal, and may lead to prosecution. The internationally accepted symbol for first aid is the white cross on a green background shown below. Some organizations may make use of the Star of Life, although this is usually reserved for use by ambulance services, or may use symbols such as the Maltese Cross, like the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps and St John Ambulance. Other symbols may also be used.

ISO First Aid Symbol

St. Andrew's First Aid Badge

Symbol of the Red Cross

Maltese or Amalfi Cross

Star of life

Civil defence

Fire

Main article: Fire making

Making fire is recognized in the sources as to significantly increase the ability to survive physically and mentally. Lighting a fire without a lighter or matches, such as by using natural flint and steel with tinder, is a frequent subject of both books on survival and in survival courses. There is an emphasis placed on practicing fire-making skills before venturing into the wilderness. Producing fire under adverse conditions has been made much easier by the introduction of tools such as the solar spark lighter and the fire piston.

Fire is presented as a tool meeting many survival needs. The heat provided by a fire warms the body, dries wet clothes, disinfects water, and cooks food. Not to be overlooked is the psychological boost and the sense of safety and protection it gives. In the wild, fire can provide a sensation of home, a focal point, in addition to being an essential energy source. Fire may deter wild animals from interfering with the survivor, however wild animals may be attracted to the light and heat of a fire. The light and smoke emitted by a fire can also be used to work at night and can signal rescue units.

Water

A human being can survive an average of three to five days without the intake of water. In colder or warmer temperatures, the need for water is greater. The issues presented by the need for water dictate that unnecessary water loss by perspiration be avoided in survival situations. The need for water increases with exercise.[2]

A typical person will lose minimally two to maximally four liters of water per day under ordinary conditions, and more in hot, dry, or cold weather. Four to six liters of water or other liquids are generally required each day in the wilderness to avoid dehydration and to keep the body functioning properly.[3] The U.S. Army survival manual recommends that you drink water whenever thirsty.[4][5] Other groups recommend rationing water through "water discipline".[6]

A lack of water causes dehydration, which may result in lethargy, headaches, dizziness, confusion, and eventually death. Even mild dehydration reduces endurance and impairs concentration, which is dangerous in a survival situation where clear thinking is essential. Dark yellow or brown urine is a diagnostic indicator of dehydration. To avoid dehydration, a high priority is typically assigned to locating a supply of drinking water and making provision to render that water as safe as possible.

Recent thinking is that boiling or commercial filters are significantly safer than use of chemicals, with the exception of chlorine dioxide.[7][8][9]

Food

Culinary root tubers, fruit, edible mushrooms, edible nuts, edible beans, edible cereals or edible leaves, edible moss, edible cacti and algae can be searched and if needed, prepared (mostly by boiling). With the exception of leaves, these foods are relatively high in calories, providing some energy to the body. Plants are some of the easiest food sources to find in the jungle, forest or desert because they're stationary and can thus be had without exerting much effort.[10]

Skills, and equipment (such as bows, snares and nets) necessary to gather animal food in the wild include animal trapping, hunting, fishing.

Focusing on survival until rescued by presumed searchers, The Boy Scouts of America especially discourages foraging for wild foods on the grounds that the knowledge and skills needed are unlikely to be possessed by those finding themselves in a wilderness survival situation, making the risks (including use of energy) outweigh the benefits.[11]

Navigation

These two pictures of the same tree trunk in the Northern Hemisphere are an example of a navigational terrain feature. The left picture shows the northern side of a trunk, where darker and more humid micro climatic conditions favor moss growth. The right picture is south, with sunnier and drier conditions, less favorable for moss growth. The shady side is not always opposite the noon side.

Survival situations can often be resolved by finding a way to safety, or a more suitable location to wait for rescue. Types of navigation include:

Mental preparedness

Navigation is the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another.[1] It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks. All navigational techniques involve locating the navigator's position compared to known locations or patterns. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Etymology 3 Basic concepts 3.1 Latitude 3.2 Longitude 4 Modern technique 4.1 Dead reckoning 4.2 Piloting 4.3 Celestial navigation 4.3.1 Marine chronometer 4.3.2 The marine sextant 4.4 Inertial navigation 4.5 Electronic navigation 4.5.1 Radio navigation 4.5.2 Radar navigation 4.5.3 Satellite navigation 5 Navigation processes 5.1 Day's work in navigation 5.2 Passage planning 6 Integrated bridge systems 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links [edit]History

This section requires expansion. For more details on this topic, see History of navigation. In the European medieval period, navigation was considered part of the set of seven mechanical arts. [edit]Etymology

1530s, from L. navigationem (nom. navigatio), from navigatus, pp. of navigare "to sail, sail over, go by sea, steer a ship," from navis "ship" and the root of agere "to drive" [2]. [edit]Basic concepts

Map of Earth Longitude (λ) Lines of longitude appear vertical with varying curvature in this projection, but are actually halves of great ellipses, with identical radii at a given latitude. Latitude (φ) Lines of latitude appear horizontal with varying curvature in this projection; but are actually circular with different radii. All locations with a given latitude are collectively referred to as a circle of latitude. The equator divides the planet into a Northern Hemisphere and a Southern Hemisphere, and has a latitude of 0°. See Geodesy topics. v d e [edit]Latitude Further information: Latitude The latitude of a place on the Earth's surface is the angular distance north or south of the equator.[3] Latitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the North and South poles.[3] The latitude of the North Pole is 90° N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90° S.[3] Historically, mariners calculated latitude in the Northern Hemisphere by sighting the North Star Polaris with a sextant and sight reduction tables to take out error for height of eye and atmospheric refraction. Generally, the height of Polaris in degrees of arc above the horizon is the latitude of the observer. [edit]Longitude Further information: Longitude Similar to latitude, the longitude of a place on the Earth's surface is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian or Greenwich meridian.[3] Longitude is usually expressed in degrees (marked with °) ranging from 0° at the Greenwich meridian to 180° east and west. Sydney, Australia, for example, has a longitude of about 151° east. New York City has a longitude of about 74° west. For most of history, mariners struggled to determine precise longitude. The problem was solved with the invention of the marine chronometer. Longitude can be calculated if the precise time of a sighting is known. [edit]Modern technique

Most modern navigation relies primarily on positions determined electronically by receivers collecting information from satellites. Most other modern techniques rely on crossing lines of position or LOP.[4] A line of position can refer to two different things: a line on a chart and a line between the observer and an object in real life.[5] A bearing is a measure of the direction to an object.[5] If the navigator measures the direction in real life, the angle can then be drawn on a nautical chart and the navigator will be on that line on the chart.[5] In addition to bearings, navigators also often measure distances to objects.[4] On the chart, a distance produces a circle or arc of position.[4] Circles, arcs, and hyperbolae of positions are often referred to as lines of position. If the navigator draws two lines of position, and they intersect he must be at that position.[4] A fix is the intersection of two or more LOPs.[4] If only one line of position is available, this may be evaluated against the dead reckoning position to establish an estimated position.[6] Lines (or circles) of position can be derived from a variety of sources: celestial observation (a short segment of the circle of equal altitude, but generally represented as a line), terrestrial range (natural or man made) when two charted points are observed to be in line with each other,[7] compass bearing to a charted object, radar range to a charted object, on certain coastlines, a depth sounding from echo sounder or hand lead line. There are some methods seldom used today such as "dipping a light" to calculate the geographic range from observer to lighthouse Methods of navigation have changed through history.[8] Each new method has enhanced the mariner’s ability to complete his voyage.[8] One of the most important judgments the navigator must make is the best method to use.[8] Some types of navigation are depicted in the table. Modern navigation methods Illustration Description Application Dead reckoning or DR, in which one advances a prior position using the ship's course and speed. The new position is called a DR position. It is generally accepted that only course and speed determine the DR position. Correcting the DR position for leeway, current effects, and steering error result in an estimated position or EP. An inertial navigator develops an extremely accurate EP.[8] Used at all times. Pilotage involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent determination of position relative to geographic and hydrographic features.[8] When within sight of land. Celestial navigation involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of position using tables, spherical trigonometry, and almanacs. Used primarily as a backup to satellite and other electronic systems in the open ocean.[8] Electronic navigation covers any method of position fixing using electronic means, including: Radio navigation uses radio waves to determine position by either radio direction finding systems or hyperbolic systems, such as Decca, Omega and LORAN-C. Losing ground to GPS. Radar navigation uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing of objects whose position is known. This process is separate from radar’s use as a collision avoidance system.[8] Primarily when within radar range of land. Satellite navigation uses artificial earth satellite systems, such as GPS, to determine position.[8] Used in all situations. The practice of navigation usually involves a combination of these different methods.[8] [edit]Dead reckoning Further information: Dead reckoning

The navigator plots his 9am position, indicated by the triangle, and, using his course and speed, estimates his position at 9:30am and 10am. Dead reckoning is the process of estimating present position by projecting course and speed from a known past position.[9] It is also used to predict a future position by projecting course and speed from a known present position.[9] The DR position is only an approximate position because it does not allow for the effect of leeway, current, helmsman error, compass error, or any other external influences.[9] The navigator uses dead reckoning in many ways, such as:[9] to determine sunrise and sunset, to predict landfall, sighting lights and arrival times, to evaluate the accuracy of electronic positioning information, to predict which celestial bodies will be available for future observation. The most important use of dead reckoning is to project the position of the ship into the immediate future and avoid hazards to navigation.[9] The navigator carefully tends the DR plot, updating it when required, and uses it to evaluate external forces acting on the ship. The navigator also consults the DR plot to avoid navigation hazards.[9] A fix taken at each DR position will reveal the effects of current, wind, and steering error, and allow the navigator to stay on track by correcting for them.[9] The use of DR when an Electronic Charts Display and Information System (ECDIS) is the primary plotting method will vary with the type of system. An ECDIS allows the display of the ship’s heading projected out to some future position as a function of time, the display of waypoint information, and progress toward each waypoint in turn.[9] Until ECDIS is proven to provide the level of safety and accuracy required, the use of a traditional DR plot on paper charts is a prudent backup, especially in restricted waters.[9] Before the development of the lunar distance method or the marine chronometer, dead reckoning was the primary method of determining longitude available to mariners such as Christopher Columbus and John Cabot on their trans-Atlantic voyages. [edit]Piloting Further information: Pilotage Piloting (also called pilotage) involves navigating a vessel in restricted waters and fixing its position as precisely as possible at frequent intervals.[10] More so than in other phases of navigation, proper preparation and attention to detail are important.[10] Procedures vary from vessel to vessel, and between military, commercial, and private vessels.[10] A military navigation team will nearly always consist of several people.[10] A military navigator might have bearing takers stationed at the gyro repeaters on the bridge wings for taking simultaneous bearings, while the civilian navigator must often take and plot them himself.[10] While the military navigator will have a bearing book and someone to record entries for each fix, the civilian navigator will simply pilot the bearings on the chart as they are taken and not record them at all.[10] If the ship is equipped with an ECDIS, it is reasonable for the navigator to simply monitor the progress of the ship along the chosen track, visually ensuring that the ship is proceeding as desired, checking the compass, sounder and other indicators only occasionally.[10] If a pilot is aboard, as is often the case in the most restricted of waters, his judgement can generally be relied upon, further easing the workload.[10] But should the ECDIS fail, the navigator will have to rely on his skill in the manual and time-tested procedures.[10] [edit]Celestial navigation Main article: Celestial navigation

A celestial fix will be at the intersection of two or more circles. Celestial navigation systems are based on observation of the positions of the Sun, Moon, Planets and navigational stars. Such systems are in use as well for terrestrial navigating as for interstellar navigating. By knowing which point on the rotating earth a celestial object is above and measuring its height above the observer's horizon, the navigator can determine his distance from that subpoint. A Nautical almanac and a chronometer are used to compute the subpoint on earth a celestial body is over, and a sextant is used to measure the body's angular height above the horizon. That height can then be used to compute distance from the subpoint to create a circular line of position. A navigator shoots a number of stars in succession to give a series of overlapping lines of position. Where they intersect is the celestial fix. The moon and sun may also be used. The sun can also be used by itself to shoot a succession of lines of position (best done around local noon) to determine a position.[11] [edit]Marine chronometer Further information: Marine chronometer

A traditional marine chronometer. In order to accurately measure longitude, the precise time of a sextant sighting (down to the second, if possible) must be recorded. Each second of error is equivalent to 15 seconds of longitude error, which at the equator is a position error of .29 mile, about the accuracy limit of manual celestial navigation. The spring-driven marine chronometer is a precision timepiece used aboard ship to provide accurate time for celestial observations.[11] A chronometer differs from a spring-driven watch principally in that it contains a variable lever device to maintain even pressure on the mainspring, and a special balance designed to compensate for temperature variations.[11] A spring-driven chronometer is set approximately to Greenwich mean time (GMT) and is not reset until the instrument is overhauled and cleaned, usually at three-year intervals.[11] The difference between GMT and chronometer time is carefully determined and applied as a correction to all chronometer readings.[11] Spring-driven chronometers must be wound at about the same time each day.[11] Quartz crystal marine chronometers have replaced spring-driven chronometers aboard many ships because of their greater accuracy.[11] They are maintained on GMT directly from radio time signals.[11] This eliminates chronometer error and watch error corrections.[11] Should the second hand be in error by a readable amount, it can be reset electrically.[11] The basic element for time generation is a quartz crystal oscillator.[11] The quartz crystal is temperature compensated and is hermetically sealed in an evacuated envelope.[11] A calibrated adjustment capability is provided to adjust for the aging of the crystal.[11] The chronometer is designed to operate for a minimum of 1 year on a single set of batteries.[11] Observations may be timed and ship’s clocks set with a comparing watch, which is set to chronometer time and taken to the bridge wing for recording sight times.[11] In practice, a wrist watch coordinated to the nearest second with the chronometer will be adequate.[11] A stop watch, either spring wound or digital, may also be used for celestial observations.[11] In this case, the watch is started at a known GMT by chronometer, and the elapsed time of each sight added to this to obtain GMT of the sight.[11] All chronometers and watches should be checked regularly with a radio time signal.[11] Times and frequencies of radio time signals are listed in publications such as Radio Navigational Aids.[11] [edit]The marine sextant

The marine sextant is used to measure the elevation of celestial bodies above the horizon. For more details on this topic, see Sextant. The second critical component of celestial navigation is to measure the angle formed at the observer's eye between the celestial body and the sensible horizon. The sextant, an optical instrument, is used to perform this function. The sextant consists of two primary assemblies. The frame is a rigid triangular structure with a pivot at the top and a graduated segment of a circle, referred to as the "arc", at the bottom. The second component is the index arm, which is attached to the pivot at the top of the frame. At the bottom is an endless vernier which clamps into teeth on the bottom of the "arc". The optical system consists of two mirrors and, generally, a low power telescope. One mirror, referred to as the "index mirror" is fixed to the top of the index arm, over the pivot. As the index arm is moved, this mirror rotates, and the graduated scale on the arc indicates the measured angle ("altitude"). The second mirror, referred to as the "horizon glass", is fixed to the front of the frame. One half of the horizon glass is silvered and the other half is clear. Light from the celestial body strikes the index mirror and is reflected to the silvered portion of the horizon glass, then back to the observer's eye through the telescope. The observer manipulates the index arm so the reflected image of the body in the horizon glass is just resting on the visual horizon, seen through the clear side of the horizon glass. Adjustment of the sextant consists of checking and aligning all the optical elements to eliminate "index correction". Index correction should be checked, using the horizon or more preferably a star, each time the sextant is used. The practice of taking celestial observations from the deck of a rolling ship, often through cloud cover and with a hazy horizon, is by far the most challenging part of celestial navigation [edit]Inertial navigation Further information: Inertial navigation Inertial navigation is a dead reckoning type of navigation system that computes its position based on motion sensors. Once the initial latitude and longitude is established, the system receives impulses from motion detectors that measure the acceleration along three or more axes enabling it to continually and accurately calculate the current latitude and longitude. Its advantages over other navigation systems are that, once the starting position is set, it does not require outside information, it is not affected by adverse weather conditions and it cannot be detected or jammed. Its disadvantage is that since the current position is calculated solely from previous positions, its errors are cumulative, increasing at a rate roughly proportional to the time since the initial position was input. Inertial navigation systems must therefore be frequently corrected with a location 'fix' from some other type of navigation system. The US Navy developed a Ships Inertial Navigation System (SINS) during the Polaris missile program to ensure a safe, reliable and accurate navigation system for its missile submarines. Inertial navigation systems were in wide use until satellite navigation systems (GPS) became available. [edit]Electronic navigation

[edit]Radio navigation For more details on this topic, see Radio navigation. A radio direction finder or RDF is a device for finding the direction to a radio source. Due to radio's ability to travel very long distances "over the horizon", it makes a particularly good navigation system for ships and aircraft that might be flying at a distance from land. RDFs works by rotating a directional antenna and listening for the direction in which the signal from a known station comes through most strongly. This sort of system was widely used in the 1930s and 1940s. RDF antennas are easy to spot on German World War II aircraft, as loops under the rear section of the fuselage, whereas most US aircraft enclosed the antenna in a small teardrop-shaped fairing. In navigational applications, RDF signals are provided in the form of radio beacons, the radio version of a lighthouse. The signal is typically a simple AM broadcast of a morse code series of letters, which the RDF can tune in to see if the beacon is "on the air". Most modern detectors can also tune in any commercial radio stations, which is particularly useful due to their high power and location near major cities. Decca, OMEGA, and LORAN-C are three similar hyperbolic navigation systems. Decca was a hyperbolic low frequency radio navigation system (also known as multilateration) that was first deployed during World War II when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As was the case with Loran C, its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving-map displays. The system was deployed in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to oil platforms. The OMEGA Navigation System was the first truly global radio navigation system for aircraft, operated by the United States in cooperation with six partner nations. OMEGA was developed by the United States Navy for military aviation users. It was approved for development in 1968 and promised a true worldwide oceanic coverage capability with only eight transmitters and the ability to achieve a four mile (6 km) accuracy when fixing a position. Initially, the system was to be used for navigating nuclear bombers across the North Pole to Russia. Later, it was found useful for submarines.[1] Due to the success of the Global Positioning System the use of Omega declined during the 1990s, to a point where the cost of operating Omega could no longer be justified. Omega was terminated on September 30, 1997 and all stations ceased operation. LORAN is a terrestrial navigation system using low frequency radio transmitters that use the time interval between radio signals received from three or more stations to determine the position of a ship or aircraft. The current version of LORAN in common use is LORAN-C, which operates in the low frequency portion of the EM spectrum from 90 to 110 kHz. Many nations are users of the system, including the United States, Japan, and several European countries. Russia uses a nearly exact system in the same frequency range, called CHAYKA. LORAN use is in steep decline, with GPS being the primary replacement. However, there are attempts to enhance and re-popularize LORAN. LORAN signals are less susceptible to interference and can penetrate better into foliage and buildings than GPS signals. [edit]Radar navigation Further information: Radar navigation

Radar ranges and bearings can be very useful navigation. When a vessel is within radar range of land or special radar aids to navigation, the navigator can take distances and angular bearings to charted objects and use these to establish arcs of position and lines of position on a chart.[12] A fix consisting of only radar information is called a radar fix.[13] Types of radar fixes include "range and bearing to a single object,"[14] "two or more bearings,"[14] "tangent bearings,"[14] and "two or more ranges."[14] Parallel indexing is a technique defined by William Burger in the 1957 book The Radar Observer's Handbook.[15] This technique involves creating a line on the screen that is parallel to the ship's course, but offset to the left or right by some distance.[15] This parallel line allows the navigator to maintain a given distance away from hazards.[15] Some techniques have been developed for special situations. One, known as the "contour method," involves marking a transparent plastic template on the radar screen and moving it to the chart to fix a position.[16] Another special technique, known as the Franklin Continuous Radar Plot Technique, involves drawing the path a radar object should follow on the radar display if the ship stays on its planned course.[17] During the transit, the navigator can check that the ship is on track by checking that the pip lies on the drawn line.[17] [edit]Satellite navigation Further information: Satellite navigation Global Navigation Satellite System or GNSS is the term for satellite navigation systems that provide positioning with global coverage. A GNSS allow small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few metres using time signals transmitted along a line of sight by radio from satellites. Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments. As of 2010, the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully operational GNSS. The Russian GLONASS is a GNSS in the process of being restored to full operation. The European Union's Galileo positioning system is a next generation GNSS in the initial deployment phase, scheduled to be operational by 2013. China has indicated it may expand its regional Beidou navigation system into a global system. More than two dozen GPS satellites are in medium Earth orbit, transmitting signals allowing GPS receivers to determine the receiver's location, speed and direction. Since the first experimental satellite was launched in 1978, GPS has become an indispensable aid to navigation around the world, and an important tool for map-making and land surveying. GPS also provides a precise time reference used in many applications including scientific study of earthquakes, and synchronization of telecommunications networks. Developed by the United States Department of Defense, GPS is officially named NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). The satellite constellation is managed by the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing. The cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$750 million per year,[18] including the replacement of aging satellites, and research and development. Despite this fact, GPS is free for civilian use as a public good. [edit]Navigation processes

[edit]Day's work in navigation The Day's work in navigation is a minimal set of tasks consistent with prudent navigation. The definition will vary on military and civilian vessels, and from ship to ship, but takes a form resembling:[19] Maintain continuous dead reckoning plot. Take two or more star observations at morning twilight for a celestial fix. (prudent to observe 6 stars) Morning sun observation. Can be taken on or near prime vertical for longitude, or at any time for a line of position. Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the sun. Computation of the interval to noon, watch time of local apparent noon, and constants for meridian or ex-meridian sights. Noontime meridian or ex-meridian observation of the sun for noon latitude line. Running fix or cross with Venus line for noon fix. Noontime determination the day's run and day's set and drift. At least one afternoon sun line, in case the stars are not visible at twilight. Determine compass error by azimuth observation of the sun. Take two or more star observations at evening twilight for a celestial fix. (prudent to observe 6 stars) [edit]Passage planning Main article: Passage planning

Poor passage planning and deviation from the plan can lead to groundings, ship damage and cargo loss. Passage planning or voyage planning is a procedure to develop a complete description of vessel's voyage from start to finish. The plan includes leaving the dock and harbor area, the enroute portion of a voyage, approaching the destination, and mooring. According to international law, a vessel's captain is legally responsible for passage planning,[20] however on larger vessels, the task will be delegated to the ship's navigator.[21] Studies show that human error is a factor in 80 percent of navigational accidents and that in many cases the human making the error had access to information that could have prevented the accident.[21] The practice of voyage planning has evolved from penciling lines on nautical charts to a process of risk management.[21] Passage planning consists of three stages: appraisal, planning, execution, and monitoring,[21] which are specified in International Maritime Organization Resolution A.893(21), Guidelines For Voyage Planning,[22] and these guidelines are reflected in the local laws of IMO signatory countries (for example, Title 33 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations), and a number of professional books or publications. There are some fifty elements of a comprehensive passage plan depending on the size and type of vessel. The appraisal stage deals with the collection of information relevant to the proposed voyage as well as ascertaining risks and assessing the key features of the voyage. In the next stage, the written plan is created. The third stage is the execution of the finalised voyage plan, taking into account any special circumstances which may arise such as changes in the weather, which may require the plan to be reviewed or altered. The final stage of passage planning consists of monitoring the vessel's progress in relation to the plan and responding to deviations and unforeseen circumstances. [edit]Integrated bridge systems

Electronic integrated bridge concepts are driving future navigation system planning.[8] Integrated systems take inputs from various ship sensors, electronically display positioning information, and provide control signals required to maintain a vessel on a preset course.[8] The navigator becomes a system manager, choosing system presets, interpreting system output, and monitoring vessel response.[8]Bold text

Important survival items

Main article: Survival kit

Often survival practitioners will carry with them a "survival kit". This consists of various items they deem necessary or useful for short durations in the wilderness.

Survival manuals

A survival manual is a book used as reference in situations where a human's survival is threatened - expected or unexpected. Typically it will cover both preparation and guidance for dealing with eventualities.

There are many different types of survival manuals, but most have a section of standard advice. These are sometimes republished for public distribution: for example the SAS Survival Handbook, United States Army Survival Manual (FM 3-05.70) and United States Air Force Survival Manual (AF 64-4). Some are originally written for the public and can cover wilderness, winter and marine survival, natural and man-made disasters, and home preparedness all in one manual.[12]

Common myths

Some survival books promote the "Universal Edibility Test".[13] Allegedly, it is possible t distinguish edible foods from toxic ones by a series of progressive exposures to skin and mouth prior to ingestion, with waiting periods and checks for symptoms. However, many other experts including Ray Mears and John Kallas[14] reject this method, stating that even a small amount of some "potential foods" can cause physical discomfort, illness, or death. An additional step called the scratch test is sometimes included to evaluate the edibility of a potential food.

See also

References

Civilian pilots attending a Survival course at RAF Kinloss learn how to construct shelter from the elements, using materials available in the woodland on the north-east edge of the aerodrome.
  1. ^ Zawalsky, Bruce (16 October 2007). "Breakdown of Survival Situations by Length". Boreal Wilderness Institute. http://boreal.net/Research/survival-situations.shtml. Retrieved 28 December 2011.
  2. ^ HowStuffWorks by Charles W. Bryant
  3. ^ Water Balance; a Key to Cold Weather Survival by Bruce Zawalsky, Chief Instructor, BWI
  4. ^ "Army Survival Manual; Chapter 13 - Page 2". Aircav.com. http://www.aircav.com/survival/asch13/asch13p02.html. Retrieved 2011-10-21.
  5. ^ "U.S. Army Survival Manual FM 21-76, also known as FM 3-05.70 May 2002 Issue; drinking water". Survivalebooks.com. http://www.survivalebooks.com/survivalfm3-0570.html. Retrieved 2011-10-21.
  6. ^ "Water Discipline" at Survival Topics
  7. ^ "US EPA". http://safewater.supportportal.com/ics/support/default.asp?deptID=23015. Retrieved 2011-12-27.
  8. ^ "Wilderness Medical Society". Wemjournal.org. http://www.wemjournal.org/wmsonline/?request=get-abstract&issn=1080-6032&volume=008&issue=02&page=0096. Retrieved 2011-10-21.
  9. ^ "Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources". Dnr.wi.gov. 2008-03-11. http://dnr.wi.gov/org/water/dwg/Crypto.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-21.
  10. ^ "Master The Great Outdoors". www.SurvivalGrounds.com. http://www.survivalgrounds.com/index.php. Retrieved 2011-10-21.
  11. ^ Wilderness Survival Merit Badge pamphlet, January, 2008, at 38,
  12. ^ The One-Stop Survival Preparedness Guide at www.one-stop-survival-guide.com.
  13. ^ US Army Survival Manual FM21-76 1998 Dorset press 9th printing ISBN 1566190223
  14. ^ John Kallas, Ph.D., Director, Institute for the Study of Edible Wild Plants and Other Foragables. Biography

External links

Categories:

 

The above information uses material from Wikipedia and is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License.
Some facts may not have been fully verified for accuracy. [Disclaimers]
This page was last archived by our server on Tue Jan 24 11:18:24 2012.
Displaying this page or its contents does not use any Wikimedia Foundation's resources.
The owners of this site proudly support the Wikimedia Foundation.

More Information Results for "Survival Skills"
[Hide]▼
[Hide]▲